At the Peterloo Massacre (not to be confused with Waterloo four years earlier) on August 16th, 1819, between 60 and 80 thousand people gathered at the St. Peter's Field in Manchester, England. They demanded reforms from parliament.Calvary charged into the immense crowd, killing 15 people and injuring up to 700 others. Their cries for reform were the beginning of a series of reforms and revolutions that would occur throughout Europe in the following years.
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| Painting of Peterloo Massacre by Richard Carlile |
Metternich and Alexander the II of Russia were horribly afraid of change for obvious reasons. They were terrified of losing power within their prospective nations. There was much social unrest in both Austria and Russia during this time, and Metternich and Alex (not Bobsein) had plans of shutting down revolution at any cost. "Anti-Change; Party of two"
Metternich, in Austria, feared Nationalism the most. Being that the Austrian Empire was a large 'pot-luck' of many different nationalities and cultures that had been collected over the years.
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| Austrian Empire |
The vast empire was far from unified in thought and belief and Metternich feared they would catch the nationalist fever that was spreading throughout Europe in the last 1840's. Metternich wanted to keep a balance of power, and a unified front even with it's diverse nationalities.
Alexander the II also cringed at the word change. He wanted freedoms for the nobility of Russia. He was a very stubborn man, who did not like to be told he no or that he was wrong.
In light of he and Alexander's fears, Metternich and Alexander called together the Concert of Europe, in hopes of being proactive in stopping change. The men started building dike's to prevent floods much larger than they could have foreseen. They hoped for national governments to work together to prevent change through a series of meetings. This was the first attempt at a 'United Nations' sort of council.
At one meeting, the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, countries pulled their armies out of France and worked out a reparation system. Alexander tried to create permanent army to deal with international issues instead of calling on national armies for every issues. Unfortunately, Alexander's wishes failed because Britain would not tie itself to unforeseeable events.
In a following meeting, the Congress of Troppau in 1820, Spain and Naples wanted to get rid of the Bourbons in control and forced them to sign a constitution . Metternich saw this as a threat to the balance of power in Europe and called a meeting. What impeded him was the fact that Alex was the only ruler to show up. The two men drew up a Protocol of Troppau which stated every nation would have to send troops to stop revolutions. Austria, Russian and Prussian were the three nations to agree to it. In Naples, Metternich stopped the revolutionaries, who then fled to Spain.
In 1822 at the Congress of Verona, the Greek rebellion was address as well as Spain and Latin America.
In Greece, the rebellion was threatening Russia most directly, and was lead by Alex Ypsilanti. He had spent time in the Russian Army and launched an invasion of sorts in hopes to driving the Ottoman rulers out of Greece. They asked Russia and Austria to back them up, but were left out to dry by the anti-change party. Although Ypsilanti would fail at his first attempt in 1828, later in 1829, they would succeed.
In Spain, they population was still unhappy with Bourbon rule and wanted a revolution. France stepped in to help put the revolt down so the Bourbons would stay in control, which benefited France do to their Bourbon relation.
During all this, Latin American colonies were revolting and demanded independence. Metternich was so terrified of change, that he wanted to crush revolutions no matter their location, even the other side of the world. But to get to Latin America, you need to cross an ocean, a problem to turned to Britain to help them solve. But Britain already said no to helping out and this was no exception. At that point, President Monroe stepped in and told Metternich not to interfere with American business.
This symbolized the end of the Congress System. Verona was the last of such congresses, and showed Metternich and Alex's defeat. At this time, nationalism was far to strong a force to be disregarded to stop revolutions. Nations were too invested in their own nations well being and economy to be bothered with petty revolts in a distant part of Europe.They Empires of Austria and Russian knew they needed to strike back!
This was not the end of revolts for Russia in the mid 1800's however. In 1825 when Alex dies, he has two sons to pass the throne onto. Nicholas was the older son who was more conservative and strict. He thought he father was too progressive and was ready to undo all his reforms, and restrict the masses again. Constantine on the other hand was more liberal. But Constantine did not want the crown. After a failed uprising by Russian military leaders known as the Decembrists, Nicholas took the crown, executed the accused officers and cracked down, shorten leashed in every front.
The Decembrists revolt happened in Russia on December 25, 1825. A band of Russian officers led troops against the government when Alexander died, and his son Constantine was in line to assume the throne. He, however, did not want to rule, even though the people loved him. So his younger brother, Nicholas I, assumed the throne and the Russian Officers were so upset they protested and fought back. But they lost, Nicholas I continues to rule and the revolt-ers were sent to Siberia while the officers were executed.
For now, it seemed as if the Dike Metternich and Alexander built may hold.
But come 1830 when Liberalism broke out in the west, the dike that represented reaction collapsed.
Charles X tried to bring back the old reigme in France 1824. He changed voting rules with the July ordinances, which disculded the middle class. He took away freedom of the press and angered the French people. Charles X was expelled from France and Louis Phillpe was placed in charge of the throne. He brought back the tri-colored flag that was revolutionary and endorsed Lafayette, not the bourbons. He brought the constitution back, chared the election chamber, but kept the voting power with the upper.middle class.
| The France July Revolution was portrayed romantically as a classless view through artists such as De La Croix . |
Belgium was in possessed by the Netherland, as declared in the Congress of Vienna. The Belgiums wanted autonomy for nationalistic and cultural reasons, so they rebelled. Nicholas in Russia was prepared to cross Europe just to end this revolution, but along their way Poland decided to revolt. Russia turned their attention to Poland, crushed their rebellion and completely consumed Poland; they disintegrated the dissallusioned version of freedom the Poles had previously.
In 1831, the five Great Powers recognized Belgium as an independent and neutral state. It was forbade from joining alliances and was to be universally protected from invasions (well until Germany decides to break that rule in WWI)
Other revolutions were launched in 1830, but the only other successful revolt was in Switzerland.
While this was taking place, Britain was in a stage of reforms. in the 1820's, young liberals came to power and allowed for more freedoms religiously, in addition to be coming more economically liberal. They tried to get rid of the corn act and the house of commons, but failed. The Commons' was what kept nobles in power; the extremely corrupt to the point that less than 500 men voted for their house of representatives. There wasn't even re-districting to state where representatives should be placed.
In 1830, a Reform Bill was put into motion, but voted down, in hopes of getting more sufferage rights. It's failure mangered the public and British parliament began fearing a rebellion of their own.
In 1832, the same bill was placed into motion again and passed this time. It was based on English tradition and gave new industrial towns representation in government,on top of voting rights for the middle class. new business elites took government positions thatwere formerly held by olf aristocrats. Liberals became the champion of the working class.
In 1833 the factory Act forbade child labor under the age of nine, and in 1842, and act passed that banned women and children from working in mines.
The chartists demanded universal male sufferage, but failed.
In 1846, the Anti- Corn Law League passed a free trading reform that repelled with corn law.
By 1846, the Liberal and conservatives were in competition to see who could do the most for the people the fasted. The Ten Hours Act was passed in 1847 which limited the workday for women and young people.
As social unrest was being repressed in Britain through reform, in other countries and nationalities it was only growing stronger and by 1848, these forces would come to a head.
As nationalism grew, people exerted their beliefs of being a "group" of people with unique attributes, different from the rest. The desire for nation-hood grew strong and steady. These groups of people usually demanded social change, equal rights without a monarch and economic equality (socialism).
In France, Napoleon had conquered Europe, spreading culture and French law. But instead of unifying these nations, which was his goal, he gave them a commonality; get rid of Napoleonic rule. He spread nationality with his own hands.
Germans wanted a Germany, but were denied at the Congress of Vienna. Metternich saw this as another way to weaken Austria and Prussia did not want a new power either. In addition, the German Princes were not interested in losing their autonomy.
As ideas of equality and nationalism spread, Hungarians, Slavs and Italians got a taste and their nationalism formed and took shape.
Of course, Russia opposed all of this, being afraid of change like old, rude people typically are. They especially did not want Poland to become band-waggoners.
When 1848 comes about, things get real. The years of rebellion are upon us.
"If Paris sneezes, Europe catches a cold."
The accurate statement above describes the domino effect Paris commonly has on Europe. (The perils of being a trend setter.)
As mentioned earlier, after Charles X and his short leashed reign in France ends, Louis Philippe came to power.
| Charles X |
| Louis Philippe |
He is a forward thinking man, but not as forward as Paris wanted. The middle class called for a "banquet" to talk about what it was that they wanted, but Louis Philippe forbid it. So on February 22nd, 1848, uprising began, again. Common people began to fight back and Louis Philippe fled to Britain. With a vacancy in power, they present a group of 10 people with power, who were to be in charge until an election could take place. Of those 10, three were socialist, one of them being Louis Blanc. He believed that companies should be owned by a nation, not a private entity. They set up National Work shops that were government owned and worked by the people with shared money. Again, as Frances changes usually turn out, Paris enjoyed the changes while the rest of France did not. When a new government was elected on May 4th as the second republic, the work shops were shut down. The second republic was anti-socialism in a big way and very conservative.
This change led to unrest in Paris, which led to the Bloody June Days. Paris was anger by the changes, and were willing to fight about it. The Army prevailed, wiping out 10,000 people and exiling another 10,000. people. This was the first revolt where the middle and working classes were not allied.
As the rest of Europe followed the trend of the middle and working class' divide, Nobles everywhere rejoiced at the rise in their own power.
Eventually a strong executive branch was formed with a National election for a President who held a lot of power. Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon I, would soon to be Napoleon III. He won the presidency by a land slide, by name only. Under Napoleon III France's people lost power. He went after the radicals and liberals, and took away male suffrage. Then, he gave them male suffrage back, and blamed everything on the nobles, and followed up by asking to be voted emperor. Yet again, France goes from a republic to an Empire under a Napoleon.
Meanwhile in Italy in 1831 Giuseppe Mazzini was founding a youth movement. "Young Italy" was created with the goal of unifying Italy once and for all. This youth organization aimed at making an Italian republic. Italy was directly under Austrian rule, and when Young Italy got it's feet off the ground, the rebellion was led by Pedmont and Cardina. At first France was excited for more glory, so they sent in troops to help the rebellion and the unification of Italy, but when the Catholics heard about the pope's despondency, the French took action against the rebels to remained allied with the pope. Although Mazzini failed to unite Italy, he inspired many influential people who would come to unify Italy in the future, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1854 Garibaldi would return to Italy after being abroad to help the unification movement. In 1859 the Austro-Sardinian war was fought with Garibaldi as major general. In 1861, Italy was finally unified with the help of Garibaldi. The Kingdom of Italy was ruled by the Sardinian Monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II. Italy wasn't completely whole just yet though. In 1866 when they gained back Venice from Austria in peace talks following the Austro-Prussian war and finally in 1870 they gained Rome when France pulled out their troops and the pope could no longer fight back.
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| Garibaldi |
| Metternich |
Bohemia wanted to start a Slavic nation, but the Germans didn't agree with it and the rebellion was crushed. Within Austria, Vienna's students began to rebel, causing Metternich to flee to England. Ferdinand II resigned and Franz Joseph was elected the leader. He ruled from 1848 until WWI. Franz Joseph was young and not opposed to change and reform. His forward thinking allowed for a constitution and the true end of serfdom. As serfs gained freedom, they lost their drive to fight and dropped out of the rebellion. The rebellion failed, but reforms were passed and the Bach system was put into place. If you give the people enough of what they want they will go home and the power will remain stable. But this of course did not resolve the issue and the success the government saw was short lived.
In the Germanic states, King Frederick William IV of Prussia allowed their rebellion appease. A constitution with two houses was created and universal male suffrage was granted. He gave the lower class the illusion of power, which was enough to end the rebellion.
In other Germanic states the rebels won enough to have Prince's begin to stand down and elections took place. After the Bloody June Days the working class and the middle class were pitted against each other. The Frankfurt assembly was created, and knew they needed more power if they wanted to unite, so they went to the Prussia. They were the self-proclaimed government of Germany but had no power to back it up. They had a constitution, legal equality and all, but no country to enact their constitution in. Within the assembly they began to fight over what Germany was and it soon became the Greater Germans versus the Lesser Germans.
The Greater Germans wanted all Germans everywhere united, and turned to Prussia for help. They invited Frederick William to be their king, but he refused, realizing it would cause him more war. He denied their offer and said he wanted the crown from the German Princes, not picked up from the gutter.
Post 1848 the cries for Progress, liberalism and constitutionalism, as did idealism and romanticism spread these 'ism's' continued to advocate for progress.
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